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Literature Review of Food Insecurity Among College Students

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Prevalence and correlates of food insecurity among U.South. college students: a multi-institutional study

  • Karla P. Shelnuttii,
  • Sarah Colby3,
  • Melissa J. Vilaro1,
  • Wenjun Zhou4,
  • Geoffrey Greene5,
  • Melissa D. Olfert6,
  • Kristin Riggsbee3,
  • Jesse Stabile Morrell7 &
  • Anne E. Mathews ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3504-5826 1

BMC Public Health book 19, Article number:660 (2019) Cite this article

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Abstract

Background

College students may be vulnerable to food insecurity due to limited financial resource, decreased ownership power of federal assistance, and rise costs of tuition, housing, and food. This written report assessed the prevalence of food insecurity and its sociodemographic, health, academic, and food pantry correlates among first-yr college students in the United States.

Methods

A cross-sectional written report was conducted among first-yr students (n = 855) beyond eight U.S. universities. Food security condition was assessed using the U.Due south. Section of Agriculture Developed Nutrient Security Survey Module. Cohen's Perceived Stress Calibration, Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index, and Eating Attitudes Test-26 were used to assess perceived stress, sleep quality, and matted eating behaviors, respectively. Participants cocky-reported their grade point boilerplate (GPA) and completed questions related to meal programme enrollment and utilization of on-campus nutrient pantries.

Results

Of participating students, xix% were nutrient-insecure, and an additional 25.3% were at risk of nutrient insecurity. Students who identified as a racial minority, lived off-campus, received a Pell grant, reported a parental didactics of high schoolhouse or less, and did not participate in a repast plan were more likely to be food-insecure. Multivariate logistic regression models adjusted for sociodemographic characteristics and meal plan enrollment indicated that nutrient-insecure students had significantly college odds of poor sleep quality (OR = ii.32, 95% CI: 1.43–3.76), high stress (OR = 4.65, 95% CI: 2.66–8.11), matted eating behaviors (OR = 2.49, 95% CI: 1.20–4.ninety), and a GPA < iii.0 (OR = 1.91, 95% CI: 1.19–three.07) compared to nutrient-secure students. Finally, while half of the students (56.4%) with an on-campus pantry were aware of its existence, only 22.2% of food-insecure students endorsed utilizing the pantry for food acquisition.

Conclusions

Food insecurity among first-year higher students is highly prevalent and has implications for academic functioning and health outcomes. Higher education institutions should screen for nutrient insecurity and implement policy and programmatic initiatives to promote a healthier college experience. Campus nutrient pantries may be useful every bit short-term relief; withal, its limited utilise by students advise the need for boosted solutions with a rights-based approach to food insecurity.

Trial Registration

Retrospectively registered on ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT02941497.

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Groundwork

Today nearly 70% of high school graduates directly transition to post-secondary education in pursuit of a higher degree [ane]. Despite this ostensibly accessible organization of higher pedagogy, the price of attending college greatly exceeds the financial means of most students [2]. Major cuts in state back up for public colleges has precipitated a ascent in the price of attending a public college, a rising that has outpaced growth in median income [2, 3]. Federal back up through educatee aid and tax credits has done little to compensate [2] and, although financing through pupil loans is near ubiquitous, students are not always able to secure acceptable back up through loans or deliberately choose not to out of fright of accruing excess debt [four]. Thus, transitioning to college might be more difficult than many college students predictable [5]. The increased financial burden that students encounter may impact their spending priorities. Students frequently have to prioritize their available budget for hire, tuition, and utilities, while using the remaining insufficient balance for food, which increases their risk of nutrient insecurity [six]. While there is a consensus that pursuing a university degree is an of import determinant of social capital and wellness [vii], experiences with food insecurity undermine the socioeconomic calendar of post-secondary education.

Nutrient insecurity is defined every bit the limited or uncertain access to nutritionally adequate, prophylactic, and adequate foods that tin be obtained in socially adequate ways [eight]. Experiences with food insecurity can refer to running out of food and existence unable to afford more; having anxiety about affording meals, or eating a poor-quality diet as a result of limited fiscal ability [viii]. The U.s. Section of Agriculture (USDA) classifies individuals on a continuum with respect to food security condition. Those with loftier nutrient security do non experience any issues stemming from consequent access to adequate food items. Marginally food-secure individuals feel anxiety over food sufficiency but are even so able to maintain access to desired foods. Individuals with low food security feel reduced quality, variety, and desirability of their dietary choices but with piddling or no indication of a reduction in food intake. Finally, individuals who experience very depression food security demonstrate multiple indications of disrupted eating patterns and reduced food intake [8].

Start-year higher students are uniquely susceptible to food insecurity as they are in a period of transition into their new-found autonomy [5], while likewise learning how to cope with an environment away from home [5]. Many of these students experience considerable difficulty in managing a multifariousness of tasks that they are unaccustomed to, including managing their finances [9]. Added to this challenge is the macerated social support resulting from prolonged emotional and physical separation from their family and friends [x], the effects of which may jeopardize normal eating patterns. First-year college students may too have poor nutrition knowledge, express earning potential, and lack of budgeting skills and resource required for healthy food preparation [11,12,13]. Additionally, they may experience higher rates of weight gain and poor eating behaviors, compared to older students [14]. For these reasons, the first year of college has been described equally a 'critical developmental window' for preventing weight proceeds, [fifteen] that is paradoxically associated with nutrient insecurity [16].

An increasing number of studies have drawn attention to the high rates of food insecurity experiences on college campuses in the United States [17]. In a recent systematic review [17], the boilerplate student food insecurity rate in the U.South. was found to be 32.ix% with a range of 14.one% [eighteen] in an urban university in Alabama to 59.0% at a rural university in Oregon [19]. The pervasiveness of campus-based nutrient pantries is likewise a potential indicator that food insecurity is a salient trouble at mail-secondary institutions [20]. Across studies, post-secondary students who report food insecurity are more likely to identify every bit racial minority [21], be financially contained, have an almanac income < $15,000, live off-campus with roommates [nineteen], receive a Pell grant [21], be employed while in school [19] and accept low self-efficacy for cooking nutritious meals [18] and fiscal and nutrient literacy skills [18, 22].

Fifty-fifty if pupil food insecurity is just experienced during the time required to earn a caste, limited access to nutritious foods can precipitate poor health behaviors and increased risks of chronic disease over time. Compared with nutrient-secure students, nutrient insecure students eat fewer fruits, vegetables, and legumes [23], swallow more processed meals in social club to afford enough food [13], have lower odds of consuming breakfast and dwelling house-cooked meals [24] and are less physically agile [25]. Consequently, prolonged exposure to food insecurity may contribute to the evolution of obesity [sixteen] and associated co-morbidities such every bit hypertension, diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases [26, 27]. Nutrient insecurity likewise appears to be related to poor mental health and academic operation. Indeed, it has been posited that food insecure students endorse increased rates of depression and feet [24, 28], decreased ability to concentrate [29], and low grade point averages compared to their counterparts [29]. Thus, food insecurity can lead to sub-optimal wellness and lower academic accomplishment, undermining the goals of tertiary education.

The extent to which offset-year college students are at take a chance of food insecurity remains to exist characterized, equally enquiry related to food insecurity among this population is currently limited [24, 28, thirty]. Unlike the present study that included students from 8 geographically diverse institutions and utilized on-site anthropometric and survey assessments, previous studies were limited to modest samples from a single establishment and reliance on self-reported information drove methods. The present study likewise provides a rare glimpse of the utilise and awareness of campus-based food pantries, one of the fastest growing movements to combat food insecurity on university campuses.

To address these gaps in the literature, the nowadays written report aimed to: (i) identify and describe the prevalence of food insecurity, (2) assess the awareness and use of campus food pantries, and (iii) examine the differences in wellness, academic, and sociodemographic characteristics by food security status of kickoff-yr higher students from eight U.S. universities. Our overall inquiry question was, Is nutrient insecurity related to health and academic outcomes in U.S. first-year college students? We hypothesized that food-insecure students would accept poorer mental and physical health outcomes, and lower academic performance compared to nutrient-secure students. Findings from this project will support the evolution of evidence-based campus initiatives and policies to address educatee hunger and financial challenges.

Methods

Study pattern

Data were acquired during the project evolution phase of a USDA-funded, multi-state, prospective health promotion study, Get FRUVED. Participants included outset-year students (n = 855) from eight U.S. universities (University of Florida, University of Maine, Academy of Tennessee, Auburn University, S Dakota State University, Kansas State University, Syracuse University, and Westward Virginia University). These universities were members of an established multi-state research team (NC1193). Assessments were conducted at each university during fall 2015 and late jump 2016 bookish semesters by trained inquiry assistants. To reflect on food insecurity experienced during the students' first year of higher, data from the second assessment point were utilized for this investigation. The University of Tennessee Institutional Review Lath reviewed and provided ethical approval for all study activities at West Virginia University, Southward Dakota State University, Academy of Maine, Syracuse University and the University of Tennessee. The Institutional Review Boards at the University of Florida, Auburn Academy, and Kansas State University reviewed and approved the study for their respective campuses. Participants provided written informed consent prior to completing the cess procedures.

Participant recruitment and enrollment

Recruitment of beginning-yr students occurred past campus-wide announcements and ad through e-mails, orientation events, social media, and campus advisory booths. To be eligible, participants had to study eating less than 2 cups of fruits and/or less than 3 cups of vegetables every bit measured by the National Cancer Constitute's screener [31] and having at least 1 additional risk factor for weight gain during the higher years. The risk factors included any of the following: take a body mass index (BMI) ≥ 25 kg/m2, be a first-generation college student, take a parent who is overweight or obese, identify equally a racial minority or be of a low-income background [32]. These eligibility criteria were selected in accordance with the objectives of the larger study which was to meliorate fruit and vegetable intake and other health behaviors amidst college students. After providing consent, participants completed on-site anthropometric measurements and surveys administered through a secure web-based format.

Measures

Food insecurity

The prevalence of food insecurity over the last 12 months was assessed using the x-item validated USDA Adult Food Security Survey Module (AFSSM) [33]. The AFSSM measures several conditions and behaviors that are feature of food insecurity, including anxiety over food supply, reduced quality and quantity of food consumed, and meal skipping due to lack of fiscal resource to obtain food. Co-ordinate to the Guide to Measuring Food Security [34], the number of affirmative responses was summed to obtain a raw score ranging from 0 to 10. Students were then designated to one of four nutrient security categories: high nutrient security (i.east., no nutrient admission problems, defined as having a raw food security score zero), marginal food security (i.eastward., anxiety over nutrient supply, divers as having a raw food security score 1–ii), low food security (i.e., reduced diet quality and multifariousness, defined as having a raw nutrient security score 3–5), or very low nutrient security (i.e., multiple indications of disrupted eating patterns and reduced food intake, divers every bit having a raw nutrient security score 6–x). For assay, food security condition was dichotomized into food-secure (high food security or marginal food security status) and food-insecure (low food security or very low food security status) in accordance with the U.S. Department of Agronomics (USDA) Economical Research Service (ERS) [eight].

Anthropometry

Anthropometric measurements (weight, summit, and waist circumference) for report participants were conducted by trained inquiry assistants using a standardized protocol and calibrated equipment. Participants were weighed on a digital scale (Tanita Scale SECA 874) to the nearest 0.1 kg while wearing minimal clothing. Standing height was measured using a portable stadiometer (SECA 213) to the nearest 0.1 cm. BMI was calculated by dividing weight in kilograms by the height in foursquare meters (kg/m2). Waist circumference was measured at the midpoint between the lowest palpable rib and the top of the iliac crest and was recorded to the nearest 0.ane cm. Meridian, weight, and waist circumference measurements were taken twice, and measurements within a pre-specified margin of error were averaged.

Slumber quality

Sleep quality was measured using the xix-particular Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) [35], a reliable and valid questionnaire designed to assess sleep quality over the by month [35, 36]. The PSQI yields a total score ranging from 0 to 21 with higher scores indicating worse slumber quality. A full score greater than 5 indicates a "poor" sleeper [35].

Perceived stress

Perceived stress was measured using the 14-particular Cohen's Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) [37]. The PSS measures the degree to which situations experienced during the by month are perceived as stressful. Each PSS item yields a score that ranges from 0 to iv, with iv indicating the highest perception of stress. These particular scores were summed to yield a total score ranging from 0 to 56 with college scores indicating higher stress. Based on previous studies [38, 39], a stress score of 28 or higher was classified as high stress.

Disordered eating

Matted eating behaviors were measured using the Eating Attitudes Exam-26 (Swallow-26) [40], which assesses symptoms characteristic of eating disorders. Survey items scores were summed for a total score that ranges from 0 to 78. A score of 20 or higher indicates problematic eating behaviors and high risk of matted eating [41]. The EAT-26 is a reliable and valid instrument that correlates with clinical and psychometric variables [40, 42].

Food pantry use and awareness

Students were asked to written report whether a campus-based nutrient pantry existed on their campus. Subsequent assay of the sensation of the food pantry was assessed by calculating the number of students affirming the existence of a nutrient pantry on their campuses when a food pantry was operating at the fourth dimension of the cess. For those affirming that their schoolhouse had a food pantry, they were asked whether they utilise the pantry to obtain food. Finally, the preference for the pantry location was assessed. The 3 response options included 'in the center of the campus', 'in the eye of the campus and subconscious' and 'on the outskirts of campus with autobus access'.

Sociodemographic characteristics

Data on participants' age, sex, race/ethnicity, repast plan, parental education, place of residence, employment, university, and Pell grant status (need-based federal financial help) were collected. Age was assessed using nine chiselled options, which were then grouped into two levels (i.eastward., 18 years or 19 years and older) due to skewness. Identify of residence was assessed with five chiselled options, which were then grouped into the 'On-campus' and 'Off-campus' levels. Participants were asked whether they were enrolled in a meal plan or received a Pell grant with responses available as 'yes' or 'no'. Mother's and father's education were assessed using v response options, which were then coded every bit 'some college or higher' and 'high school or less'. Participants also identified their race using 7 response options asking respondents to select all that apply. Some other question asked for self-identified ethnicity (i.east., 'Are you Hispanic or Latino?') and the available options were 'yes,' 'no,' and 'I don't know/non sure.' These were and then coded every bit 1 race and ethnicity variable with four levels: 'Non-Hispanic white', 'Non-Hispanic black', 'Hispanic/Latino', and 'Other/multi-racial'. Finally, GPA response options included 0.five-point range options from < 2.five to 3.5–4.0.

Statistical analysis

Descriptive statistics were used to depict the prevalence of nutrient insecurity and participants' characteristics. Chi-square test of independence was used to determine the bivariate associations of nutrient insecurity and sociodemographic variables. Whenever the number in any cell was < v in a two × ii contingency table, Fisher's exact exam was used. The difference betwixt food-secure and food-insecure students on health-related parameters was analyzed using independent t-exam for data that pass the normality test and Mann–Whitney'southward U test for those not. To model the association of health and academic outcomes (i.e., BMI, perceived stress, matted eating behaviors, slumber quality, and self-reported GPA) and nutrient security status, multiple logistic regressions were used. These models were adjusted for variables constitute to be pregnant in the bivariate analyses (i.east., Pell grant status, parental education, place of residence, and meal plan condition) and variables known to affect upshot measures (age, sex, university, and employment condition) based on previous literature [vi, 19, 43, 44]. Results from these regression models were reported every bit odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals. All analyses were conducted using the IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, version 24 (Armonk, NY). Statistical significance was adamant at P < 0.05.

Results

Participant eligibility and sample size

A total of 5426 students completed eligibility surveys from all eight universities. Of these, 85.iii% (n = 4630) were enrolled in one of the eight universities and were at least 18 years old. Among the 4630 students, 86.v% (n = 4007) had less than optimal fruit and vegetable consumption (< ii cups of fruit/d and/or < iii cups of vegetable/d), 24.iii% (n = 1127) had a BMI ≥ 25 kg/m2, 17.6% (n = 814) self-identified as first-generation college educatee, 35.7% (n = 1651) had overweight or obese parent, 27.4% (due north = 1269) self-identified equally a racial minority, and 0.8% (northward = 35) were from low-income background. This criteria resulted in 2757 students eligible to enroll in the report.

Across the viii campuses, 1149 (41.7%) of eligible students chose to enroll in the report and completed a baseline assessment in the fall of 2015. Of these, 860 (74.8%) completed the second assessment during belatedly bound 2016 which was utilized for this investigation. Participants who did non provide a full response to the ten USDA AFSSM questions were excluded from analyses (due north = 5), leaving data from 855 students every bit the report sample of this investigation.

Participant characteristics

Respondents were predominantly female (68.8%), 19 years old (65.4%), and non-Hispanic white (62.4%). Around 43% of the students were employed, and the majority lived on-campus (84.4%) and had a meal plan (80%). The mean BMI was 24.7 ± v.2 kg/m2. Over half of the respondents (58.6%) barbarous in the normal BMI category (i.eastward., BMI ranging from 18.5 to 24.9), followed in prevalence past the overweight (i.e., BMI ranging from 25.0 to 29.9) category (25.9%). Nearly 28.5% of the students that were assessed came from the University of Florida, followed by Syracuse Academy (xv.2%), University of Maine (15.0%), Kansas Land University (11.0%), University of Tennessee (10.3%), Due west Virginia Academy (8.2%), Auburn Academy (vi.5%), and South Dakota Country University (v.2%).

Descriptive statistics of the student sample by nutrient security status and associations between food security status and sociodemographic characteristics are presented in Table 1. Using bivariate analysis, food security condition was significantly associated with race/ethnicity (p < 0.001), Pell grant condition (p < 0.001), repast plan condition (p = 0.001), identify of residence (p = 0.001), and mother'south and father's education (p < 0.001). Specifically, the proportion of students who identified every bit Black or Hispanic/Latino was greater among nutrient-insecure than food-secure students, and a greater proportion of food-insecure students reported having a parent with a loftier schoolhouse degree or less. Findings also indicated that students residing off-campus, receiving a Pell grant, or not enrolled in a repast program were significantly more than likely to be nutrient-insecure than their counterparts. Of note, repast programme enrollment was significantly associated with identify of residence (p < 0.001). A higher proportion of students participating in a meal plan resided on-campus compared to their counterparts (92.v% versus 7.five%).

Table 1 Descriptive characteristics by food security condition amongst outset-twelvemonth higher students at risk of weight gain in the Usa (n = 855), 2016

Total size table

Prevalence of food insecurity

Responses to the AFSSM indicated that 692 (81.0%) students were food-secure with 476 (55.vii%) having high nutrient security and 216 (25.iii%) with marginal food security. The remaining 163 (19%) students were classified every bit food-insecure, consisting of 103 (12.0%) with depression food security and 60 (7.0%) with very low nutrient security (Table 2). The highest prevalence of food insecurity (low + very depression food security) was observed amongst students attending the University of Tennessee (25.0%) while the lowest was for West Virginia University (vii.1%).

Table 2 Prevalence of high, marginal, depression, and very low nutrient security amongst first-year college students at risk of weight proceeds in the The states (n = 855), 2016

Full size table

Health correlates of food insecurity

Meaning associations were noted when comparison food-insecure and food-secure students on wellness variables (Table three). Accordingly, food-insecure students had significantly higher perceived stress (p < 0.001), disordered eating behaviors (p = 0.001), and poorer sleep quality compared to food-secure students (p < 0.001). There were no significant differences betwixt food-insecure and food-secure students with respect to BMI and waist circumference.

Table 3 Health and academic variables by nutrient security status amid first-twelvemonth higher students at hazard of weight gain in the Us (n = 855), 2016

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Multivariate logistic regression analyses controlling for age, sex, race/ethnicity, parental education, meal plan enrollment, employment status, identify of residence, and Pell grant condition (Tabular array 4) showed that nutrient-insecure students had significantly higher odds of being classified as having loftier stress (OR = 4.65, 95% CI: ii.66–viii.11), matted eating behaviors (OR = ii.49, 95% CI: 1.20–four.90), and poor slumber quality (OR = 2.32, 95% CI: 1.43–3.70). Clan of nutrient insecurity with being overweight was non statistically significant.

Table four Multivariate logistic regression models examining the association betwixt food insecurity and health and academic outcomes amongst first-year higher students at risk of weight gain in the United Statesa (n = 855), 2016

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Academic correlates of food insecurity

Findings revealed that nutrient security condition was significantly associated with cocky-reported GPA (p = 0.001) (Tabular array 3). A significantly higher proportion of food-secure students had a GPA in the 3.l–4.00 category (53.3% versus 38.9%), while a higher proportion of food-insecure students had a GPA in the 2.50–ii.59 and < ii.50 categories compared to food-secure students (20.8% versus 13.4%; 8.ii% versus 4.4% respectively) (Table iii). When controlling for sociodemographic characteristics (Table four), food-insecure students had near twice the risk of having a GPA < 3.00 compared to food-secure students (OR = 1.91, 95% CI: 1.19–iii.07).

Food pantry use and awareness

To assess the students' knowledge of the food pantry equally a food assistance resource on their campus, assay of actual versus reported food pantry availability was conducted. Among the eight universities, but three had campus food pantries in operation at the time of the assessment: Academy of Florida, University of Maine, and Syracuse University. While most University of Florida students were aware of the existing campus nutrient pantry (85.6%, n = 209), merely a tertiary of students attending Syracuse University (29.v%, northward = 38) and the University of Maine (28.7%, n = 37) reported the existence of an on-campus nutrient pantry.

Utilization of the food pantry was as well assessed amongst students reporting the existence of campus nutrient pantries in these three universities (north = 284). Results indicated that simply seven.vii% utilized the pantry for food acquisition (Tabular array 5).

Table 5 Associations between campus food pantry variables and food security status among start-yr higher students at risk of weight proceeds in the United States, 2016

Full size table

Food pantry utilization was also significantly associated with food security status (p < 0.001). While a higher proportion of food-insecure students used the nutrient pantry compared to nutrient-secure students (22.2% versus 4.1%), nearly food-insecure students (77.8%) did not employ the pantry for food acquisition. Lastly, most of the students preferred an on-campus and cardinal location for the food pantry but approximately one third (34.seven%) preferred a hidden location in the eye of the campus.

Discussion

This survey of 855 starting time-yr students from 8 U.S. universities indicated that towards the end of their first year of higher, 19% were food-insecure and 7.1% reported astringent food insecurity. An boosted 25.3% of first-twelvemonth students experienced anxiety about nutrient shortage. Food-insecure students reported higher perceived stress, a greater prevalence of matted eating behaviors, and poorer sleep quality compared to nutrient-secure students, a finding that remained meaning subsequently controlling for sociodemographic correlates of food insecurity. Nutrient security condition was also associated with race/ethnicity, place of residence, Pell grant status, parental education, GPA, meal plan enrollment, and nutrient pantry use.

The prevalence of nutrient insecurity in the current report is markedly lower than prevalence estimates reported in previous studies of college students [19, 24, 28, 45]. Of ii studies specific to commencement-year college students, Bruening et al. [24] found a prevalence of 32% while Darling et al. [28] reported a prevalence of 28%. Information technology is worth noting that, not just are the sample sizes considerably smaller than that of the nowadays study, but each is representative of a single establishment. Heterogeneity in food security prevalence at the institutional or regional level may partly explain the discrepancy. Furthermore, the availability and extent of support available to prevent food insecurity among students may widely differ between schools. Another gene may be the influence of self-selection bias. As a sub-study of the larger Go FRUVED project, the present investigation was limited to students who volunteered for a multi-yr written report tied to wellness and wellness and attended a follow-up at the stop of their first year in college.

Findings from this report shed light on the multifaceted impact food insecurity may accept on higher students' physical and mental health. Students who experienced nutrient insecurity during their outset year of higher were four times more likely to have loftier perceived stress and two times more probable to have poor sleep quality compared to food-secure students. These findings are in line with previous results in the scientific literature. Studies among higher students have linked food insecurity to poor mental health and loftier rates of feet [28] and perceived stress [25, 28]. Similarly, in a longitudinal study, Heflin and colleagues [46] reported that food insecurity might exist a causal or contributing cistron for depression among women. With respect to sleep quality, although the association between food insecurity and sleep has not been examined yet among college students, a study of food insecurity and sleep among men and women reported similar findings [47]. Food-insecure men and women were more than likely to report sleep complaints compared to their nutrient-secure counterparts [47]. Thus, students experiencing food insecurity may frequently experience other hardships related to physical and mental health [28].

Food insecurity can further influence the students' wellness by eliciting matted eating behaviors. Consequent with a previous written report amid commencement-year higher students [28], results from this study suggest that students who accept experienced food insecurity had higher odds of disordered eating behaviors than their food-secure counterparts. However, it is worth highlighting the possible overlap betwixt disordered eating indices and compensatory behaviors stemming direct from food insecurity. For example, routine abstinence from eating when hungry could exist indicative of disordered eating or only a food-insecure private's coping strategy to prolong nutrient supplies. Other studies accept shown that food-insecure individuals adopt a 'feast or dearth' wheel determined by food availability [48] wherein nutrient intake is intentionally limited as resource diminish followed by overeating when food is more available [49]. Although such behaviors may non stand for 'traditional' disordered eating, previous work suggests that nutrient insecurity may precipitate binge eating behaviors in children [l]. Regardless of the underlying crusade, the increased odds of matted eating behaviors amid food-insecure students indicates heightened eating-related psychological stress and possible deviations from salubrious eating patterns. Finally, while no deviation was found in BMI by nutrient security status, the observed health risks associated with food insecurity may lead to weight proceeds and associated co-morbidities over fourth dimension [51,52,53,54].

Our results indicate that the burdens of nutrient insecurity may translate to academic challenges. Food-insecure students were approximately ii times more than probable to take a GPA  < iii.00 compared to nutrient-secure students. This finding is similar to previous evaluations of GPA among food-insecure college students [29, 45]. Morris et al. [45] noted a significant clan between food insecurity and GPA in which students in the highest GPA range (≥ 3.00) were more than nutrient-secure than students with lower GPAs. Psychological aspects of food insecurity include fatigue, anxiety, sleep deprivation, and physical weakness [55, 56], which may impair the ability to concentrate during course. Previous work has shown that student free energy and ability to concentrate worsens equally the food insecurity score increases [57]. Thus, the development of support systems to address food insecurity may be an additional arroyo for schools interested in enhancing students' academic experience. All the same, self-reported GPA does not provide the total picture when examining students' success in college. Future research should consider incorporating additional metrics of bookish success such every bit retention and on-time graduation rates.

This investigation provides insight into the human relationship between food security status and students' characteristics. Significant associations were identified betwixt food insecurity and race/ethnicity, parental instruction, Pell grant condition, place of residence, and meal plan enrollment. Students who identified as Black or Hispanic/Latino and had a low parental education were at increased hazard of food insecurity, which is consequent with national data from the general population [41] as well as findings from a large study among college students [45]. Although living off-campus and not existence enrolled in a meal plan were each associated with food insecurity, these two variables are highly related as meal plan enrollment is by and large required among students residing on-campus only non for those off-campus. This observation is substantiated past a significant association between meal plan enrollment and place of residence among our sample. Access to affordable food off-campus may exist more than express than through campus dining halls. Food-insecure students also reported that the lack of reliable transportation hindered food access [six]. Hence, living and eating off-campus may challenge students' fiscal management skills more than living on-campus with a meal programme. Collectively, these characteristics can provide a framework for the development of interventions and back up systems targeted to those most at risk of food insecurity.

College students who experience fiscal hardships or disability to afford food may seek aid from a few available resources. The U.s.a. Department of Education distributes the Federal Pell grant, a need-based program that is awarded for depression-income students for 12 semesters. In the present study, students receiving Pell grant awards were more likely to exist food-insecure. The implications of this finding may challenge the adequacy of the buying power of Pell grants currently available for students in fiscal demand. While the cost of tuition reached an average of $9970 in the year of 2017–2018 [58], the maximum Pell grant awarded in the twelvemonth of 2017–2018 was $5920 [59]. In addition to the Pell grant program, the Supplemental Nutrient Help Programme (SNAP) provides a safety internet for food insecure individuals; notwithstanding, its eligibility criteria are very restrictive for university students. To be eligible, students must work at to the lowest degree 20 h per week, have dependents and not have child care, and participate in work-study programs. Lastly, meal plan enrollment alone does not announced to promote food security, as approximately 70% of food-insecure students reported having a meal programme. The term 'meal plan' traditionally encompasses a range of plans offered by the schoolhouse, each based on the extent of admission provided to the educatee. While some plans allow for unlimited admission throughout the calendar week, others are express to 1 meal per twenty-four hours and even no meals on weekends. Clearly these limited plans would not guarantee food security and, the all-you-can-swallow policy at most campus dining halls may even perpetuate the feast-famine eating cycle, previously associated with binge eating, and weight gain [50, 54]. Thus, even students who are enrolled in a meal plan or receive federal financial aid may withal be vulnerable to food insecurity.

In the wake of the cuts in federal and country funding and heightened food insecurity, campus food pantries have been the fastest growing form of emergency relief. Despite the recent increase in the number of food pantries [20], descriptions of students' use of this resource are limited. In the present written report, only 7.seven% of the educatee population utilized the nutrient pantry, a finding that is comparable to our previous results of students at the University of Florida [21]. Many students refuse to use an on-campus food pantry considering of the stigma attached to its employ or the sense that the food pantry is not intended for them [21], as its need implies a personal failure. Admission barriers such as limited hours, regulated frequency of use, and lack of knowledge on the logistics of its employ, take also been reported by students [sixty]. Notwithstanding, while the best-funded U.S. approaches to household nutrient insecurity are charitable food-assistance programs, nutrient pantries cannot stop hunger or provide a nutritious nutrient supply [61]. Donated food is frequently non highly-seasoned and limited in key nutrients [60]. In fact, food pantry users adopt and need fresh produce, dairy products, eggs, and meat above the canned food provided in the emergency food systems [62]. Collectively, to make the college experience more equitable for students, research and upstream solutions to pupil food poverty should go beyond the boundaries of need-based food pantries, to a broader food system, with a "rights-based approach to food security" [63].

The results of this study should exist interpreted with consideration of its limitations. Sampling bias stemming from the written report design may have influenced overall food insecurity prevalence. Thus, information technology is of import to consider when interpreting these findings that the study population is restricted to students who met the eligibility for the Get FRUVED project. Nevertheless, although the prevalence of nutrient insecurity may have been lower than other studies of get-go-twelvemonth college students [24, 28, 30], the relationship betwixt nutrient insecurity, sociodemographic, health and bookish parameters is similar to other reports in the literature [24, 28, 29]. The cross-sectional pattern of this study simply permitted examining associations rather than establishing potential causation between food insecurity and health and academic parameters. Longitudinal and intervention studies that elucidate the mechanisms by which food security can amend wellness and educational outcomes are needed. Despite the anonymity of the survey, the food security questionnaire items are prone to call back and social desirability biases related to self-report and social stigma associated with food insecurity [21, 64], which may limit the validity of the results. Additionally, food security survey items accost questions referencing the past 12-months. Given that information collection occurred at the finish of the leap semester (April 2016), a portion of that 12 months window included fourth dimension prior to students' enrollment in college. However, consequent with other studies [24, thirty] nosotros believe that capturing the feel of first-year college students is of utmost importance, equally attending a university is a menstruum where food insecurity may get an issue, for those experiencing financial constraints and social pressures in their new-constitute autonomy [5]. Finally, although we used USDA AFSSM to appraise nutrient insecurity amid our sample, the psychometric backdrop of this survey among college students have not been evaluated.

Decision

This study provides insight into the relatively obscure area of food insecurity among first-twelvemonth college students and builds upon the scant literature currently bachelor. Findings place of import sociodemographic correlates of nutrient insecurity, affirm observations from single universities about student hunger, and betoken that the prevalence of food insecurity is loftier. Our information support previous limited prove that food-insecure students are at increased adventure of adverse wellness and bookish outcomes, the effects of which may impact educatee retention and health behaviors across the college years. If this is indeed the case, the impact would not be limited to the private, presumably carrying over to the schoolhouse, land, and national level. Our results substantiate the need for screening for food insecurity among college students and the development of evidence-based support modalities to accost food insecurity. Both short-term and long-term approaches can provide an untapped opportunity to mitigate the consequences of food insecurity. These may include indexing Pell grants to tuition inflation, expanding work-study opportunities, providing full meal programme subsidies, hosting on-campus farmers' markets, expansion of the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program outreach, and providing university back up for fiscal and food literacy preparation. Finally, this study underscores several areas in need of evolution to progress food security inquiry amongst college students. Specifically, future prospective studies should examine the outcome of food insecurity on college student retention, graduation, and wellness outcomes over time. Additionally, with respect to intervention work, future studies should seek to evaluate strategies aimed at addressing student nutrient insecurity. Such progress is essential for accurately depicting the consequences of food insecurity and ultimately going beyond food security to realizing food rights.

Abbreviations

AFSSM:

Developed Food Security Survey Module

BMI:

Body mass index

CI:

Confidence interval

GPA:

Form point boilerplate

OR:

Odds ratio

USDA:

United States Department of Agronomics

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Acknowledgments

The authors would similar to acknowledge the efforts of the undergraduate student enquiry assistants who were involved in data collection at each university.

Funding

Funding for this study was provided by the National Institute of Nutrient and Agriculture, U.S. Department of Agriculture, nether honor number 2014-67001-21851. The funding source had no role in the design, information collection, analysis or writing of this manuscript.

Author data

Affiliations

  1. Nutrient Science and Human Diet Department, University of Florida, PO Box 110370, Gainesville, FL, 32611-0370, United states of america

    Aseel El Zein, Melissa J. Vilaro & Anne E. Mathews

  2. Department of Family, Youth & Community Sciences, Academy of Florida, PO Box 110310, Gainesville, FL, 32611-0370, Us

    Karla P. Shelnutt

  3. Department of Diet, University of Tennessee, 229 Jessie Harris Bldg., Knoxville, RN, 37996, USA

    Sarah Colby & Kristin Riggsbee

  4. Section of Concern Analytics and Statistics, University of Tennessee, 916 Volunteer Blvd, UT SMC 247, Knoxville, TN, 37996, United states of america

    Wenjun Zhou

  5. Nutrition and Food Sciences, Academy of Rhode Island, 125 Fogarty Hall, Kingston, RI, 02881, Us

    Geoffrey Greene

  6. Animal and Nutritional Sciences, Due west Virginia University, 1194 Evansdale Drive, G28 Ag. Sc. Bldg., Morgantown, WV, 26506, U.s.a.

    Melissa D. Olfert

  7. Agriculture, Nutrition, and Nutrient Systems, University of New Hampshire, 115 Kendall Hall, 129 Main Street, Durham, NH, 03814, USA

    Jesse Stabile Morrell

Contributions

AEZ, AEM, SC, GG, JM, KPS, and MDO conceptualized the research blueprint. AEZ, AEM, SC, MDO, MJV, and KR collected data; AEZ conducted the statistical and data analyses with contributions from WZ. AEZ and AEM wrote the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Anne E. Mathews.

Ethics declarations

Ethics blessing and consent to participate

The University of Tennessee Institutional Review Lath reviewed and provided ethical approval for all written report activities at West Virginia University, South Dakota State University, University of Maine, Syracuse Academy and the University of Tennessee. The Institutional Review Boards at the University of Florida, Auburn University, and Kansas State University reviewed and canonical the report for their respective campuses. All participants signed a written informed consent grade prior to participation and had the correct to withdraw from study at whatsoever time without any punishment.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

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El Zein, A., Shelnutt, K.P., Colby, S. et al. Prevalence and correlates of food insecurity amid U.S. college students: a multi-institutional written report. BMC Public Health nineteen, 660 (2019). https://doi.org/ten.1186/s12889-019-6943-6

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  • DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-019-6943-6

Keywords

  • Food insecurity
  • Nutrient pantry
  • Higher students
  • BMI
  • Stress
  • Sleep
  • Disordered eating
  • GPA

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